SQLAlchemy 2.0 Documentation
SQLAlchemy ORM
- ORM Quick Start
- ORM Mapped Class Configuration
- ORM Mapped Class Overview
- Mapping Classes with Declarative
- Integration with dataclasses and attrs
- SQL Expressions as Mapped Attributes¶
- Changing Attribute Behavior
- Composite Column Types
- Mapping Class Inheritance Hierarchies
- Non-Traditional Mappings
- Configuring a Version Counter
- Class Mapping API
- Mapping SQL Expressions
- Relationship Configuration
- ORM Querying Guide
- Using the Session
- Events and Internals
- ORM Extensions
- ORM Examples
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SQL Expressions as Mapped Attributes¶
Attributes on a mapped class can be linked to SQL expressions, which can be used in queries.
Using a Hybrid¶
The easiest and most flexible way to link relatively simple SQL expressions to a class is to use a so-called
“hybrid attribute”,
described in the section Hybrid Attributes. The hybrid provides
for an expression that works at both the Python level as well as at the
SQL expression level. For example, below we map a class User
,
containing attributes firstname
and lastname
, and include a hybrid that
will provide for us the fullname
, which is the string concatenation of the two:
from sqlalchemy.ext.hybrid import hybrid_property
class User(Base):
__tablename__ = "user"
id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)
firstname = mapped_column(String(50))
lastname = mapped_column(String(50))
@hybrid_property
def fullname(self):
return self.firstname + " " + self.lastname
Above, the fullname
attribute is interpreted at both the instance and
class level, so that it is available from an instance:
some_user = session.scalars(select(User).limit(1)).first()
print(some_user.fullname)
as well as usable within queries:
some_user = session.scalars(
select(User).where(User.fullname == "John Smith").limit(1)
).first()
The string concatenation example is a simple one, where the Python expression
can be dual purposed at the instance and class level. Often, the SQL expression
must be distinguished from the Python expression, which can be achieved using
hybrid_property.expression()
. Below we illustrate the case where a conditional
needs to be present inside the hybrid, using the if
statement in Python and the
case()
construct for SQL expressions:
from sqlalchemy.ext.hybrid import hybrid_property
from sqlalchemy.sql import case
class User(Base):
__tablename__ = "user"
id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)
firstname = mapped_column(String(50))
lastname = mapped_column(String(50))
@hybrid_property
def fullname(self):
if self.firstname is not None:
return self.firstname + " " + self.lastname
else:
return self.lastname
@fullname.expression
def fullname(cls):
return case(
(cls.firstname != None, cls.firstname + " " + cls.lastname),
else_=cls.lastname,
)
Using column_property¶
The column_property()
function can be used to map a SQL
expression in a manner similar to a regularly mapped Column
.
With this technique, the attribute is loaded
along with all other column-mapped attributes at load time. This is in some
cases an advantage over the usage of hybrids, as the value can be loaded
up front at the same time as the parent row of the object, particularly if
the expression is one which links to other tables (typically as a correlated
subquery) to access data that wouldn’t normally be
available on an already loaded object.
Disadvantages to using column_property()
for SQL expressions include that
the expression must be compatible with the SELECT statement emitted for the class
as a whole, and there are also some configurational quirks which can occur
when using column_property()
from declarative mixins.
Our “fullname” example can be expressed using column_property()
as
follows:
from sqlalchemy.orm import column_property
class User(Base):
__tablename__ = "user"
id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)
firstname = mapped_column(String(50))
lastname = mapped_column(String(50))
fullname = column_property(firstname + " " + lastname)
Correlated subqueries may be used as well. Below we use the
select()
construct to create a ScalarSelect
,
representing a column-oriented SELECT statement, that links together the count
of Address
objects available for a particular User
:
from sqlalchemy.orm import column_property
from sqlalchemy import select, func
from sqlalchemy import Column, Integer, String, ForeignKey
from sqlalchemy.orm import DeclarativeBase
class Base(DeclarativeBase):
pass
class Address(Base):
__tablename__ = "address"
id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)
user_id = mapped_column(Integer, ForeignKey("user.id"))
class User(Base):
__tablename__ = "user"
id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)
address_count = column_property(
select(func.count(Address.id))
.where(Address.user_id == id)
.correlate_except(Address)
.scalar_subquery()
)
In the above example, we define a ScalarSelect()
construct like the following:
stmt = (
select(func.count(Address.id))
.where(Address.user_id == id)
.correlate_except(Address)
.scalar_subquery()
)
Above, we first use select()
to create a Select
construct, which we then convert into a scalar subquery using the
Select.scalar_subquery()
method, indicating our intent to use this
Select
statement in a column expression context.
Within the Select
itself, we select the count of Address.id
rows
where the Address.user_id
column is equated to id
, which in the context
of the User
class is the Column
named id
(note that id
is
also the name of a Python built in function, which is not what we want to use
here - if we were outside of the User
class definition, we’d use User.id
).
The Select.correlate_except()
method indicates that each element in the
FROM clause of this select()
may be omitted from the FROM list (that is, correlated
to the enclosing SELECT statement against User
) except for the one corresponding
to Address
. This isn’t strictly necessary, but prevents Address
from
being inadvertently omitted from the FROM list in the case of a long string
of joins between User
and Address
tables where SELECT statements against
Address
are nested.
For a column_property()
that refers to columns linked from a
many-to-many relationship, use and_()
to join the fields of the
association table to both tables in a relationship:
from sqlalchemy import and_
class Author(Base):
# ...
book_count = column_property(
select(func.count(books.c.id))
.where(
and_(
book_authors.c.author_id == authors.c.id,
book_authors.c.book_id == books.c.id,
)
)
.scalar_subquery()
)
Adding column_property() to an existing Declarative mapped class¶
If import issues prevent the column_property()
from being defined
inline with the class, it can be assigned to the class after both
are configured. When using mappings that make use of a Declarative
base class (i.e. produced by the DeclarativeBase
superclass
or legacy functions such as declarative_base()
),
this attribute assignment has the effect of calling Mapper.add_property()
to add an additional property after the fact:
# only works if a declarative base class is in use
User.address_count = column_property(
select(func.count(Address.id)).where(Address.user_id == User.id).scalar_subquery()
)
When using mapping styles that don’t use Declarative base classes
such as the registry.mapped()
decorator, the Mapper.add_property()
method may be invoked explicitly on the underlying Mapper
object,
which can be obtained using inspect()
:
from sqlalchemy.orm import registry
reg = registry()
@reg.mapped
class User:
__tablename__ = "user"
# ... additional mapping directives
# later ...
# works for any kind of mapping
from sqlalchemy import inspect
inspect(User).add_property(
column_property(
select(func.count(Address.id))
.where(Address.user_id == User.id)
.scalar_subquery()
)
)
Composing from Column Properties at Mapping Time¶
It is possible to create mappings that combine multiple
ColumnProperty
objects together. The ColumnProperty
will
be interpreted as a SQL expression when used in a Core expression context,
provided that it is targeted by an existing expression object; this works by
the Core detecting that the object has a __clause_element__()
method which
returns a SQL expression. However, if the ColumnProperty
is used as
a lead object in an expression where there is no other Core SQL expression
object to target it, the ColumnProperty.expression
attribute will
return the underlying SQL expression so that it can be used to build SQL
expressions consistently. Below, the File
class contains an attribute
File.path
that concatenates a string token to the File.filename
attribute, which is itself a ColumnProperty
:
class File(Base):
__tablename__ = "file"
id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)
name = mapped_column(String(64))
extension = mapped_column(String(8))
filename = column_property(name + "." + extension)
path = column_property("C:/" + filename.expression)
When the File
class is used in expressions normally, the attributes
assigned to filename
and path
are usable directly. The use of the
ColumnProperty.expression
attribute is only necessary when using
the ColumnProperty
directly within the mapping definition:
stmt = select(File.path).where(File.filename == "foo.txt")
Using Column Deferral with column_property()
¶
The column deferral feature introduced in the ORM Querying Guide
at Limiting which Columns Load with Column Deferral may be applied at mapping time
to a SQL expression mapped by column_property()
by using the
deferred()
function in place of column_property()
:
from sqlalchemy.orm import deferred
class User(Base):
__tablename__ = "user"
id: Mapped[int] = mapped_column(primary_key=True)
firstname: Mapped[str] = mapped_column()
lastname: Mapped[str] = mapped_column()
fullname: Mapped[str] = deferred(firstname + " " + lastname)
Using a plain descriptor¶
In cases where a SQL query more elaborate than what column_property()
or hybrid_property
can provide must be emitted, a regular Python
function accessed as an attribute can be used, assuming the expression
only needs to be available on an already-loaded instance. The function
is decorated with Python’s own @property
decorator to mark it as a read-only
attribute. Within the function, object_session()
is used to locate the Session
corresponding to the current object,
which is then used to emit a query:
from sqlalchemy.orm import object_session
from sqlalchemy import select, func
class User(Base):
__tablename__ = "user"
id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)
firstname = mapped_column(String(50))
lastname = mapped_column(String(50))
@property
def address_count(self):
return object_session(self).scalar(
select(func.count(Address.id)).where(Address.user_id == self.id)
)
The plain descriptor approach is useful as a last resort, but is less performant in the usual case than both the hybrid and column property approaches, in that it needs to emit a SQL query upon each access.
Query-time SQL expressions as mapped attributes¶
In addition to being able to configure fixed SQL expressions on mapped classes,
the SQLAlchemy ORM also includes a feature wherein objects may be loaded
with the results of arbitrary SQL expressions which are set up at query time as part
of their state. This behavior is available by configuring an ORM mapped
attribute using query_expression()
and then using the
with_expression()
loader option at query time. See the section
Loading Arbitrary SQL Expressions onto Objects for an example mapping and usage.
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