SQLAlchemy 1.4 Documentation
SQLAlchemy 1.4 / 2.0 Tutorial
- Establishing Connectivity - the Engine
- Working with Transactions and the DBAPI
- Working with Database Metadata¶
- Working with Data
- Data Manipulation with the ORM
- Working with ORM Related Objects
- Further Reading
Project Versions
Working with Database Metadata¶
With engines and SQL execution down, we are ready to begin some Alchemy. The central element of both SQLAlchemy Core and ORM is the SQL Expression Language which allows for fluent, composable construction of SQL queries. The foundation for these queries are Python objects that represent database concepts like tables and columns. These objects are known collectively as database metadata.
The most common foundational objects for database metadata in SQLAlchemy are
known as MetaData
, Table
, and Column
.
The sections below will illustrate how these objects are used in both a
Core-oriented style as well as an ORM-oriented style.
ORM readers, stay with us!
As with other sections, Core users can skip the ORM sections, but ORM users would best be familiar with these objects from both perspectives.
Setting up MetaData with Table objects¶
When we work with a relational database, the basic structure that we create and
query from is known as a table. In SQLAlchemy, the “table” is represented
by a Python object similarly named Table
.
To start using the SQLAlchemy Expression Language,
we will want to have Table
objects constructed that represent
all of the database tables we are interested in working with. Each
Table
may be declared, meaning we explicitly spell out
in source code what the table looks like, or may be reflected, which means
we generate the object based on what’s already present in a particular database.
The two approaches can also be blended in many ways.
Whether we will declare or reflect our tables, we start out with a collection
that will be where we place our tables known as the MetaData
object. This object is essentially a facade around a Python dictionary
that stores a series of Table
objects keyed to their string
name. Constructing this object looks like:
>>> from sqlalchemy import MetaData
>>> metadata_obj = MetaData()
Having a single MetaData
object for an entire application is
the most common case, represented as a module-level variable in a single place
in an application, often in a “models” or “dbschema” type of package. There
can be multiple MetaData
collections as well, however
it’s typically most helpful if a series of Table
objects that are
related to each other belong to a single MetaData
collection.
Once we have a MetaData
object, we can declare some
Table
objects. This tutorial will start with the classic
SQLAlchemy tutorial model, that of the table user
, which would for
example represent the users of a website, and the table address
,
representing a list of email addresses associated with rows in the user
table. We normally assign each Table
object to a variable
that will be how we will refer to the table in application code:
>>> from sqlalchemy import Table, Column, Integer, String
>>> user_table = Table(
... "user_account",
... metadata_obj,
... Column("id", Integer, primary_key=True),
... Column("name", String(30)),
... Column("fullname", String),
... )
We can observe that the above Table
construct looks a lot like
a SQL CREATE TABLE statement; starting with the table name, then listing out
each column, where each column has a name and a datatype. The objects we
use above are:
Table
- represents a database table and assigns itself to aMetaData
collection.Column
- represents a column in a database table, and assigns itself to aTable
object. TheColumn
usually includes a string name and a type object. The collection ofColumn
objects in terms of the parentTable
are typically accessed via an associative array located atTable.c
:>>> user_table.c.name Column('name', String(length=30), table=<user_account>) >>> user_table.c.keys() ['id', 'name', 'fullname']
Integer
,String
- these classes represent SQL datatypes and can be passed to aColumn
with or without necessarily being instantiated. Above, we want to give a length of “30” to the “name” column, so we instantiatedString(30)
. But for “id” and “fullname” we did not specify these, so we can send the class itself.
See also
The reference and API documentation for MetaData
,
Table
and Column
is at Describing Databases with MetaData.
The reference documentation for datatypes is at SQL Datatype Objects.
In an upcoming section, we will illustrate one of the fundamental
functions of Table
which
is to generate DDL on a particular database connection. But first
we will declare a second Table
.
Declaring Simple Constraints¶
The first Column
in the above user_table
includes the
Column.primary_key
parameter which is a shorthand technique
of indicating that this Column
should be part of the primary
key for this table. The primary key itself is normally declared implicitly
and is represented by the PrimaryKeyConstraint
construct,
which we can see on the Table.primary_key
attribute on the Table
object:
>>> user_table.primary_key
PrimaryKeyConstraint(Column('id', Integer(), table=<user_account>, primary_key=True, nullable=False))
The constraint that is most typically declared explicitly is the
ForeignKeyConstraint
object that corresponds to a database
foreign key constraint. When we declare tables that are related to
each other, SQLAlchemy uses the presence of these foreign key constraint
declarations not only so that they are emitted within CREATE statements to
the database, but also to assist in constructing SQL expressions.
A ForeignKeyConstraint
that involves only a single column
on the target table is typically declared using a column-level shorthand notation
via the ForeignKey
object. Below we declare a second table
address
that will have a foreign key constraint referring to the user
table:
>>> from sqlalchemy import ForeignKey
>>> address_table = Table(
... "address",
... metadata_obj,
... Column("id", Integer, primary_key=True),
... Column("user_id", ForeignKey("user_account.id"), nullable=False),
... Column("email_address", String, nullable=False),
... )
The table above also features a third kind of constraint, which in SQL is the
“NOT NULL” constraint, indicated above using the Column.nullable
parameter.
Tip
When using the ForeignKey
object within a
Column
definition, we can omit the datatype for that
Column
; it is automatically inferred from that of the
related column, in the above example the Integer
datatype
of the user_account.id
column.
In the next section we will emit the completed DDL for the user
and
address
table to see the completed result.
Emitting DDL to the Database¶
We’ve constructed a fairly elaborate object hierarchy to represent
two database tables, starting at the root MetaData
object, then into two Table
objects, each of which hold
onto a collection of Column
and Constraint
objects. This object structure will be at the center of most operations
we perform with both Core and ORM going forward.
The first useful thing we can do with this structure will be to emit CREATE
TABLE statements, or DDL, to our SQLite database so that we can insert
and query data from them. We have already all the tools needed to do so, by
invoking the
MetaData.create_all()
method on our MetaData
,
sending it the Engine
that refers to the target database:
>>> metadata_obj.create_all(engine)
BEGIN (implicit)
PRAGMA main.table_...info("user_account")
...
PRAGMA main.table_...info("address")
...
CREATE TABLE user_account (
id INTEGER NOT NULL,
name VARCHAR(30),
fullname VARCHAR,
PRIMARY KEY (id)
)
...
CREATE TABLE address (
id INTEGER NOT NULL,
user_id INTEGER NOT NULL,
email_address VARCHAR NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (id),
FOREIGN KEY(user_id) REFERENCES user_account (id)
)
...
COMMIT
The DDL create process by default includes some SQLite-specific PRAGMA statements
that test for the existence of each table before emitting a CREATE. The full
series of steps are also included within a BEGIN/COMMIT pair to accommodate
for transactional DDL (SQLite does actually support transactional DDL, however
the sqlite3
database driver historically runs DDL in “autocommit” mode).
The create process also takes care of emitting CREATE statements in the correct
order; above, the FOREIGN KEY constraint is dependent on the user
table
existing, so the address
table is created second. In more complicated
dependency scenarios the FOREIGN KEY constraints may also be applied to tables
after the fact using ALTER.
The MetaData
object also features a
MetaData.drop_all()
method that will emit DROP statements in the
reverse order as it would emit CREATE in order to drop schema elements.
Defining Table Metadata with the ORM¶
This ORM-only section will provide an example declaring the
same database structure illustrated in the previous section, using a more
ORM-centric configuration paradigm. When using
the ORM, the process by which we declare Table
metadata
is usually combined with the process of declaring mapped classes.
The mapped class is any Python class we’d like to create, which will then
have attributes on it that will be linked to the columns in a database table.
While there are a few varieties of how this is achieved, the most common
style is known as
declarative, and allows us
to declare our user-defined classes and Table
metadata
at once.
Setting up the Registry¶
When using the ORM, the MetaData
collection remains present,
however it itself is contained within an ORM-only object known as the
registry
. We create a registry
by constructing
it:
>>> from sqlalchemy.orm import registry
>>> mapper_registry = registry()
The above registry
, when constructed, automatically includes
a MetaData
object that will store a collection of
Table
objects:
>>> mapper_registry.metadata
MetaData()
Instead of declaring Table
objects directly, we will now
declare them indirectly through directives applied to our mapped classes. In
the most common approach, each mapped class descends from a common base class
known as the declarative base. We get a new declarative base from the
registry
using the registry.generate_base()
method:
>>> Base = mapper_registry.generate_base()
Tip
The steps of creating the registry
and “declarative base”
classes can be combined into one step using the historically familiar
declarative_base()
function:
from sqlalchemy.orm import declarative_base
Base = declarative_base()
Declaring Mapped Classes¶
The Base
object above is a Python class which will serve as the base class
for the ORM mapped classes we declare. We can now define ORM mapped classes
for the user
and address
table in terms of new classes User
and
Address
:
>>> from sqlalchemy.orm import relationship
>>> class User(Base):
... __tablename__ = "user_account"
...
... id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
... name = Column(String(30))
... fullname = Column(String)
...
... addresses = relationship("Address", back_populates="user")
...
... def __repr__(self):
... return f"User(id={self.id!r}, name={self.name!r}, fullname={self.fullname!r})"
>>> class Address(Base):
... __tablename__ = "address"
...
... id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
... email_address = Column(String, nullable=False)
... user_id = Column(Integer, ForeignKey("user_account.id"))
...
... user = relationship("User", back_populates="addresses")
...
... def __repr__(self):
... return f"Address(id={self.id!r}, email_address={self.email_address!r})"
The above two classes are now our mapped classes, and are available for use in
ORM persistence and query operations, which will be described later. But they
also include Table
objects that were generated as part of the
declarative mapping process, and are equivalent to the ones that we declared
directly in the previous Core section. We can see these
Table
objects from a declarative mapped class using the
.__table__
attribute:
>>> User.__table__
Table('user_account', MetaData(),
Column('id', Integer(), table=<user_account>, primary_key=True, nullable=False),
Column('name', String(length=30), table=<user_account>),
Column('fullname', String(), table=<user_account>), schema=None)
This Table
object was generated from the declarative process
based on the .__tablename__
attribute defined on each of our classes,
as well as through the use of Column
objects assigned
to class-level attributes within the classes. These Column
objects can usually be declared without an explicit “name” field inside
the constructor, as the Declarative process will name them automatically
based on the attribute name that was used.
See also
Declarative Mapping - overview of Declarative class mapping
Other Mapped Class Details¶
For a few quick explanations for the classes above, note the following attributes:
the classes have an automatically generated __init__() method - both classes by default receive an
__init__()
method that allows for parameterized construction of the objects. We are free to provide our own__init__()
method as well. The__init__()
allows us to create instances ofUser
andAddress
passing attribute names, most of which above are linked directly toColumn
objects, as parameter names:>>> sandy = User(name="sandy", fullname="Sandy Cheeks")
More detail on this method is at Default Constructor.
we provided a __repr__() method - this is fully optional, and is strictly so that our custom classes have a descriptive string representation and is not otherwise required:
>>> sandy User(id=None, name='sandy', fullname='Sandy Cheeks')
An interesting thing to note above is that the
id
attribute automatically returnsNone
when accessed, rather than raisingAttributeError
as would be the usual Python behavior for missing attributes.we also included a bidirectional relationship - this is another fully optional construct, where we made use of an ORM construct called
relationship()
on both classes, which indicates to the ORM that theseUser
andAddress
classes refer to each other in a one to many / many to one relationship. The use ofrelationship()
above is so that we may demonstrate its behavior later in this tutorial; it is not required in order to define theTable
structure.
Emitting DDL to the database¶
This section is named the same as the section Emitting DDL to the Database
discussed in terms of Core. This is because emitting DDL with our
ORM mapped classes is not any different. If we wanted to emit DDL
for the Table
objects we’ve created as part of
our declaratively mapped classes, we still can use
MetaData.create_all()
as before.
In our case, we have already generated the user
and address
tables
in our SQLite database. If we had not done so already, we would be free to
make use of the MetaData
associated with our
registry
and ORM declarative base class in order to do so,
using MetaData.create_all()
:
# emit CREATE statements given ORM registry
mapper_registry.metadata.create_all(engine)
# the identical MetaData object is also present on the
# declarative base
Base.metadata.create_all(engine)
Combining Core Table Declarations with ORM Declarative¶
As an alternative approach to the mapping process shown previously
at Declaring Mapped Classes, we may also make
use of the Table
objects we created directly in the section
Setting up MetaData with Table objects in conjunction with
declarative mapped classes from a declarative_base()
generated base
class.
This form is called hybrid table,
and it consists of assigning to the .__table__
attribute directly, rather
than having the declarative process generate it:
mapper_registry = registry()
Base = mapper_registry.generate_base()
class User(Base):
__table__ = user_table
addresses = relationship("Address", back_populates="user")
def __repr__(self):
return f"User({self.name!r}, {self.fullname!r})"
class Address(Base):
__table__ = address_table
user = relationship("User", back_populates="addresses")
def __repr__(self):
return f"Address({self.email_address!r})"
Note
The above example is an alternative form to the mapping that’s first illustrated previously at Declaring Mapped Classes. This example is for illustrative purposes only, and is not part of this tutorial’s “doctest” steps, and as such does not need to be run for readers who are executing code examples. The mapping here and the one at Declaring Mapped Classes produce equivalent mappings, but in general one would use only one of these two forms for particular mapped class.
The above two classes are equivalent to those which we declared in the previous mapping example.
The traditional “declarative base” approach using __tablename__
to
automatically generate Table
objects remains the most popular
method to declare table metadata. However, disregarding the ORM mapping
functionality it achieves, as far as table declaration it’s merely a syntactical
convenience on top of the Table
constructor.
We will next refer to our ORM mapped classes above when we talk about data manipulation in terms of the ORM, in the section Inserting Rows with the ORM.
Table Reflection¶
To round out the section on working with table metadata, we will illustrate
another operation that was mentioned at the beginning of the section,
that of table reflection. Table reflection refers to the process of
generating Table
and related objects by reading the current
state of a database. Whereas in the previous sections we’ve been declaring
Table
objects in Python, where we then have the option
to emit DDL to the database to generate such a schema, the reflection process
does these two steps in reverse, starting from an existing database
and generating in-Python data structures to represent the schemas within
that database.
Tip
There is no requirement that reflection must be used in order to use SQLAlchemy with a pre-existing database. It is entirely typical that the SQLAlchemy application declares all metadata explicitly in Python, such that its structure corresponds to that the existing database. The metadata structure also need not include tables, columns, or other constraints and constructs in the pre-existing database that are not needed for the local application to function.
As an example of reflection, we will create a new Table
object which represents the some_table
object we created manually in
the earlier sections of this document. There are again some varieties of
how this is performed, however the most basic is to construct a
Table
object, given the name of the table and a
MetaData
collection to which it will belong, then
instead of indicating individual Column
and
Constraint
objects, pass it the target Engine
using the Table.autoload_with
parameter:
>>> some_table = Table("some_table", metadata_obj, autoload_with=engine)
BEGIN (implicit)
PRAGMA main.table_...info("some_table")
[raw sql] ()
SELECT sql FROM (SELECT * FROM sqlite_master UNION ALL SELECT * FROM sqlite_temp_master) WHERE name = ? AND type = 'table'
[raw sql] ('some_table',)
PRAGMA main.foreign_key_list("some_table")
...
PRAGMA main.index_list("some_table")
...
ROLLBACK
At the end of the process, the some_table
object now contains the
information about the Column
objects present in the table, and
the object is usable in exactly the same way as a Table
that
we declared explicitly:
>>> some_table
Table('some_table', MetaData(),
Column('x', INTEGER(), table=<some_table>),
Column('y', INTEGER(), table=<some_table>),
schema=None)
See also
Read more about table and schema reflection at Reflecting Database Objects.
For ORM-related variants of table reflection, the section Mapping Declaratively with Reflected Tables includes an overview of the available options.
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